Обучение по природни науки и върхови технологии

2015/1, стр. 125 - 144

NAMING OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

Maria Atanassova
E-mail: ma@uctm.edu
Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry,
University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
8, Kl. Okhridski Blvd.
1756 Sofia, Bulgaria

Резюме: A summary review for the origin of the names and symbols of all chemical elements discovered up to now are presented along with the reasons for proposing these appellations.

Ключови думи: chemical elements, naming, discovery

In 1782 the French chemist Guyton de Morveau stated that, in the interest of science, it was necessary to have “a constant method of denomination, which helps the intelligence and relieves the memory”. Ideally, an element or a compound should have a unique name because the proliferation of names for the same substance can lead to confusion. He developed the first system of chemical nomenclature. This system was refined in collaboration with Berthollet, de Fourcroy and Lavoisier and was submitted to the French Academy in 1787. In 1813 the great Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius proposed chemical symbols using the initials of their Latin names that was slowly adopted and then was widely used. For use in chemical formulae, each atom is represented by a unique symbol in upright type. The atomic symbol consists of one or two letters used to represent the atom in chemical formulae. Berzelius supported Lavoisier’s ideas and adapted the nomenclature to the German language, ameliorated the system and expanded it with many new terms. He determined the atomic weights of nearly all elements, and was the first to do so almost accurately. In September 1860, Dmitri Mendeleev (Fig. 1) attended the First International Chemical Congress in Karlsruhe (Germany) where 140 prominent chemists met to sort out contradictory lists of atomic and molecular weights. Mendeleev wrote Elements of Chemistry in 1868. He ranked the nearly 60 known chemical elements according to a periodic law, linking relative atomic weights of the elements to their properties. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table rapidly became the basis for understanding elements and their compounds. Undoubtedly, every schoolchild was fascinated by its first acquaintance with the “Mendeleev’s garden” and the periodicity of the properties of the elements: simplicity, coherence, rhythm, inevitability. Although the existence of a chemical industry as well as the expanding chemical knowledge and new theories at the time, the unifying and generally accepted concepts were missing.

Figure 1. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) was formed in 1919 by chemists from industry and academia with aim to serves to advance the worldwide aspects of the chemical sciences and to contribute to the application of chemistry in the service of Mankind. The primary aim of chemical nomenclature is simply to provide methodology for assigning descriptors (names and formulae) to chemical substances so that they can be identified without ambiguity, and thereby to facilitate communication. It has been accepted in the past that the discoverers of a new element has the sole right to name it. When a new element is discovered, independently confirmed, and accepted by a joint IUPACIUPAP (International Union of Pure and Applied Physics) Working Group, the researchers are invited to propose a name and a symbol to the IUPAC Inorganic Chemistry Division (first issue was addressed in 1947). After careful examination of the suggestion and its suitability, the IUPAC Council usually approves the name and element symbol. The exact procedure for naming newly-synthesized elements is today apparent and internationally adopted.

“Discovery of a chemical element is the experimental demonstration, beyond reasonable doubt, of the existence of a nuclide. Conformation demands reproducibility…”. Elements of atomic numbers greater than 103 are often referred to in the scientifi c literature but receive names only after they have been “discovered”. Names are needed for these elements even before their existence has been established and approved by IUPAC. The name is derived directly from the atomic number of the element using the following numerical roots:

0 nil 2 bi 4 quad 6 hex 8 oct 1 un 3 tri 5 pent 7 sept 9 enn

The roots are put together in order of the digits which make up the atomic number and terminated by “-ium” to spell out the name, example:

104 Unq Unnilquadium 106 Unh Unnilhexium

118 Uuo Ununoctium

170 Usn Unseptnilium

For linguistic consistency, the names of all new elements should end in “-ium” according IUPAC’s element naming rules from 1953. The suffix “-on” signifies that it is a noble gas. The suffi x of every metal discovered in the past 220 years is either –um or –ium. Non-metal suffixes are longstanding traditions prior to 2002, every non-metal discovered in the past 225 years has either an –on or –in suffix. Helium was an exception because it was named before any chemical investigation, after it was detected in the solar spectrum and thought to be metallic. It is desirable that the names of elements in different languages differ as little as possible, examples Table 1. But the names of the seven metals, known as the metals of Antiquity, are different.

While the origin of the names of some elements is obscure (such as antimony) and is lost in antiquity, the names of others have been based on a property of the element, a mineral from which it was isolated, its place or area of discovery, a mythological character or concept, an astronomical object, or to honor an eminent scientist, Tables 27. In 1979 IUPAC approved a systematic nomenclature for elements with atomic numbers greater than one hundred.

Table 1. The names of some elements in six languages

SymbolLatinEnglishBulgarianFrenchGermanRussianCCarboncarbonвъглеродcarboneKohlenstoffуглеродSnStannumtinкалайtainZinnоловоSbStibiumantimonyантимонantimoineAntimonсурьмаAuAurumgoldзлатоorGoldзолотоFeFerrumironжелязоferEisenжелезоAgSilversilverсреброargentSilberсереброNNitrogennitrogenазотazoteStickstoffазот
CuCoppercopperмедcuivreKupferмедьHHydrogeniumhydrogenводородhydrogŽneWasserstoffводородOOxygeniumoxygenкислородoxygŽneSauerstoffкислородPbPlumbumleadоловоplombBleiсвинецHgHydrargiriummercuryживакmercureQuicksilberртуть

The elements named after “modern” celestial objects are presented in Table 2. As it is seen during 70 years (from 1968 till 1940), chemical element has not received name of such origin.

Table 2. Elements named after an astronomical object

Sym-bolYear ofdiscoveryScientistOrigin of the nameTe1782Reichensteinafter the Latin name for “earth”, tellusU1789Klaprothafterplanet Uranus,itselfnamed afterGreek godofthe sky UranusCe1803Berzelius/KlaprothafterdwarfplanetCeres,itselfnamedafterRomandeity of agriculture CeresSe1817Berzeliusafter Selene, Greek goddess of the moonHe1868Lokyer/ Janssenafter Helios, Greek god of the SunNp1940McMillan/Abelsonafter planet Neptune,itself named after Romangodof the seaPu1940SeaborgafterminorplanetPluto,itselfanewlycoinedname, Pluto was the god of the underworld

As it is seen from Fig. 2 this group of elements named after an astronomical object compiles around 6% of the elements, followed by a group of nine names that were derived from mythology or superstition, Table 3.

Nearly 100 years (from 1844) no chemical element has received a name after a mythological character till 1945 when promethium, Pm was produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (USA). From 1827 (when aluminium was discovered) up to now no newly discovered/synthesized element is named after a mineral or similar substance, Table 4.

1234Naming of chemical elements56Figure 2.Elements named after: 1. an astronomical object 6%; 2. a mythologicalconcept or character 8%; 3. a mineral or similar substance 14%; 4. a property of theelement 36%; 5. a place or geographical region 23%; 6. a scientist 13 %.

Table 3. Elements named after a mythological concept or character

Sym-bolYearof dis-coveryScientistOrigin of the nameHg350BCknown as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum(Greek „hydr- „ water and „argyros“ silver); the Roman god ofmessengers MercuryTi1791Gregornamed of the Titans of Greek mythologyTa1802Ekabergits name comes fromTantalus, a character from GreekmythologyIr1803Tennantnamed for the Greek goddess Iris, personification of the rainbow,because of the striking and diverse colors of its saltsPd1803Wollastonnamed it after the asteroid Pallas, which was itself named afterthe epithet of the Greek goddessAthena, acquired by her whenshe slew PallasTh1823Berzeliusnamed after Thor, the Norse god of thunderV1830Sefströmafter the Germanic goddess of beauty and fertility, Vanadis
Nb1844RoseThe name comes from Greek mythology: Niobe, daughter ofTantalusPm1945Coryell,Glendenin,Richterfrom Prometheus, the Titan in Greek mythology who stolere from Mount Olympus and brought it down to humans,to symbolize „both the daring and the possible misuse ofmankind‘s intellect“

Table 4. Elements named after a mineral or similar substance

Sym-bolYear ofdiscov-eryScientistOrigin of the nameLi1817Arfwedsonfrom Greek: lithos, „stone“B1808Gay-Lussac,ThnardtheArabic word buraq or the Persian word burah; names forthe mineral boraxCa1808Davyfrom Latin calx, genitive calcis, meaning „lime“C1789Lavoisierfrom Latin: carbo„coal“Si1823Berzeliusfrom Latin: silex, hard stone or flintNa1807Davynew Latin name natrium, which refers to the Egyptiannatron,a natural mineral salt primarily made of hydrated sodiumcarbonateK1807Davyfrom the word „alkali“, which in turn came fromArabic:al-qalyah „plant ashes“; The English name for the elementpotassium comes from the word „potash“.Al1827WöhlerAncient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeingmordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is stillused as a styptic.N1772D. Ruther-fordThe English word nitrogen entered the language from theFrench nitrogŽne, coined in 1790 by Chaptal, from the Greek„nitron“ (sodium carbonate) and the French gŽne (producing).The gas had been found in nitric acid.Co1732BrandtKobald oreMo1778ScheeleAncient Greek molybdos, meaning lead, its ores were confusedwith lead oresW1781BergmanThe word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tungsten directly translatable to heavy stone, though the name isvolfram in Swedish, which is alternatively named tungsten.Zr1789Klaprothzirconium is taken from the mineral zirkon, the most importantsource of zirconium; and from the Persian word „zargun“,meaning „gold colored“

Figure 3. Pyrolusite, MnO2 had been used for centuries to give a violet color to glass and pottery. Scheele reported three years of experiments on pyrolusite. Manganite, MnO(OH), the color is dark steel-grey to iron-black and the luster brilliant

Figure 4. Alabandite or alabandine, (dMnS)

Figire 5. Purpurite is a mineral, basically manganese phosphate, (Mn3+PO4):

52.66% Mn O and 47.34% P O

2 3 2 5

Figure 6. Rhodochrosite, MnCO3

The rare earth elements (REs) exposed a weakness in Mendeleev’s approach and posed a challenge: each element was individual and therefore could not occupy the same position in the Periodic Table as another element. In 1902, the Czech chemist Bohuslav Brauner addressed the lack of positions for REs on Mendeleev’s period chart by extending the table downward after lanthanum, La. This odd name had a mythical sound and the REs are not only rare and precious but have special, unique qualities that no other elements have. Table 5 lists elements named after a property, as well as names constructed from other words. Carl Gustav Mosander, an assistant of Berzelius succeeded to separate a new rose-colored oxide from La2O3 in 1841. Lanthanum, La laid hidden in the mineral cerite for 36 years, Table 5. Mosander named the oxide Didymium (Greek didymos, means “twin”) because of the similarity with La. In 1843, he found that yttria (except Ce, La and didymia) contained three other oxides, a colorless (yttria), a yellow (erbia) and a rose-colored (terbia). A number of chemist did not succeed to separate Didymium until 1884, when at the age of 26 Carl Auer successfully separated the two earths and proposed the names of Pr (greenish salts) and Nd (new). Due to the exceedingly close chemical properties of lanthanoids, separating them from one another was an extremely difficult task for the chemists until now.

Figure 7. Manganocalcite, (Ca,Mn)CO3 is a variety of calcite rich in manganese, which gives the mineral a pink color

Marie Curie is a legendary figure of science and one of the most important women in modern human history. She became interested in the source of radioactivity that Henri Becquerel discovered coming from pitchblende ore in 1897. She found that only two elements emitted appreciable ionizing radiation, U and Th. In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered Po and Ra. They noticed that the barium fraction containing Ra glowed in the dark. Later, Pierre and a student noticed that a speck of Ra emits heat: in one hour radium is able to melt more than its own weight of ice. This was the first hint of nuclear energy. M. Curie was the first women awarded a Nobel Prize (in Physics). In 1903, she, together with her husband and Henri Becquerel received this recognition for their investigations on the radiation phenomena. From her 1911 Nobel Lecture, it is evident that by mastering chemistry and radioactivity, she pioneered the concept of the “atom” and the state of the art of this “new science”, today known as radiochemistry. In addition, Marie and Pierre Curie’s daughter IrŽne and her husband, Frdric Joliot, discovered artificial radioactivity and were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935 in “recognition of their synthesis of new radioactive elements”. They irradiated light elements, such as aluminium, with alpha rays from a polonium source. Some times they obtained a proton and in others a neutron and (separately) a positron. The results for aluminium can be summarized by the equations: 27Al13 + 4He2 30P15 +1no,

30P15 is radioactive and decays emitting a positron 30P15 30Si14 + oe+1.

Figure 8. Marie Curie

Elements named after color (Cr, Mn (Figures 4−7), Cl, I, Rh, Ir, Cs, Rb, Tl, In) are listed also in Table 5.

The suggested name by Andr Ampere in 1813 for an as-yet-unisolated element fluorine, F derived from the mineral fluorospar. Chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br) and iodine (I) were named from Greek adjectives describing a property but fluorospar was a source. After a century the tradition was remembered with the origin of the name of At, Table 5.

Table 5. Elements named after a property of the element

Sym-bolYear ofdiscoveryScientistOrigin of the nameH1766Cavendishfrom the Greek hydro meaning water and genes meaningcreator, water was produced when hydrogen is burnedRb1861Bunsen/Kirchhoffbecause of the bright red lines in its emission spectrumin the mineral lepidolite, from the Latin word rubidus,meaning „dark red“Cs1860Bunsen/Kirchhoffthe bright blue lines in its emission spectrum, a namederived from the Latin word caesius, meaning sky-blueRa1898M. and P.Curiethe French word radium, formed in Modern Latin radius(ray), called for its power of emitting energy in the formof raysBa1772ScheeleThe most common naturally occurring minerals of bariumare barite (BaSO4) and witherite (BaCO3), both beinginsoluble in water. Barium‘s name originates from thealchemical derivative „baryta“, which itself comes fromGreek (barys), meaning „heavy.“Be1797VanquelinFor about 160 years, beryllium was also known asglucinum or glucinium (with the accompanying chemicalsymbol „Gl“, the name coming from the Greek word forsweet: γλυκυς, due to the sweet taste of beryllium saltsN1772D. RutherfordNitrogen gas was inert enough that Lavoisier referredto it as azote, from the Greek word (azotos) meaning„lifeless“.P1669Brandfrom Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος meaning „light-bearer“ (Latin Lucifer), referring to the „Morning Star“,the planet Venus.As2500BCThe word arsenic was borrowed from the Syriac word(al)zarniqaand the Persian word Zarnikh: „yellow orpiment“,into Greek as arsenikon. The similar Greek wordarsenikos, „male“, „masculine“ or „potent“. The wordwas adopted in Latin arsenicum and Old French arsenic,from which the English word arsenic is derived.
Sn3500BCThe English word ‚tin‘ is Germanic. The Latin stannummeant an alloy of silver and lead, mean ‚tin‘; the earlierLatin word for it was plumbum candidum ‚white lead‘.Stannum apparently came from an earlier stāgnum(meaning the same substance).Cr1797Vanquelinkhroma (Greek) for colorBi1753GeoffroyfromArabic bi ismid, meaning having the properties ofantimonyor German words weisse masse or wismuth(„white mass“), translated in the mid sixteenth century toNew Latin bisemutum.O1772ScheeleGreek (oxys) („acid“, literally „sharp“, referring to thesour taste of acids) and (-gοnos) („producer“), because itwas mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen intheir composition.S2000BCfrom suelphlos Indo-European; swell meaning to burnslowlyF1810AmpŽreafter Latin fluo (to flow, in smelting), fluorite rocks wereadded to metal ores to lower their melting points duringsmelting.Cl1774ScheelefromAncient Greek:khlôros“pale green”Br1825Belard/Gmelinfrom Greek: br–mos, meaning „strong-smelling“ or„stench“)I1811Courtoisfrom Greek meaning violet or purple, the color of iodinevaporAc1899Debiernefrom theAncient Greek aktis, aktinos, meaning beam orrayPa1900CrookesThe name meant „parent of actinium“:Ac is a productof radioactive decay of Pa; from Greek: protos meaningrst, before).Ar1894Rayleigh/RamsayGreek word αργον, meaning „lazy“ or „inactive“, as areference that itundergoes almost no chemical reactions.Rn1900E. RutherfordRutherford noticed that the compounds of thoriumcontinuously emit a radioactive gas that retains theradioactive powers for several minutes; emanation (Latin„emanare“ to elapse and „emanatio“ expiration)Tc1937E. SegrŽfrom the Greekτεχνητός, meaning „artificial“Fe5000BCThe English name Iron=Iren (Anglo-Saxon) is of uncer-tain origin.
Os1803Tennantfrom Greek osme meaning „smell“because of the ashenand smoky smell of the volatile OsO4Rh1804WollastonGreek rhodon meaning „rose“Aubefore6000BCThe symbolAu is from the Latin: aurum, meaning„shining dawn“.Aurora was the goddess of dawn.Agbefore5000BCGreek: †rguros; Latin: argentum; both from the Indo-European root arg-for „grey“ or „shining“Tl1861Crooksfrom Greek, thallos, meaning „a green shoot or twig“In1863Richternamed for the indigo blue line in its spectrum, the firstindication of its existence in zinc ores, as a new andunknown elementPt1735Ulloafrom the Spanish term platina: „little silver“Ne1897Ramsaythe Greek word, νέον, neuter singular form of neos,meaning newKr1898Ramsay/Tra-versfrom Greek: κρυπτός kryptos „the hidden one“Xe1898Ramsay/Tra-versthe name xenon for this gas from the Greek wordξένον(xenon), meaning ‚foreign(er)‘, ‚strange(r)‘, or ‚guest‘ZnBefore1000BCthe German zinke, and supposedly meant „tooth-like,pointed or jagged“ (metallic zinc crystals have a needle-like appearance); Zink could also imply „tin-like“,relation to German zinn meaning tin.La1838Mosanderfrom the Greek λανθανω meaning to lie hiddenPr1885Welsbachthe Greek prasinos, meaning green, and didymos(δίδυμος), twinNd1885Welsbachthe Greek words neos (νέος), new, and didymos, twinPb7000BCplumbum nigrum (literally, „black lead“) by Romans todistinguish it from plumbum candidum (literally, „brightlead“) now tinSb3000BCThe popular etymology, from anti-monachos or Frenchantimoine, this would mean „monk-killer“, and isexplained by many early alchemists being monks, andantimony being poisonous.Another etymology is thehypothetical Greek word antimonos, „against aloneness“,„not found as metal“, or „not found unalloyed“.At1940Corson/Segrethe Greek word (astatos) means „unstable“

Within 15 years, three elements predicted by Mendeleev were discovered and named after the countries of discovery, and found to precisely match the predicted properties: 21 eka-Boron, Sc; 31 eka-Aluminium, Ga and 32 eka-Silicon, Ge, Table 6. The name polonium, proposed on 13 July 1898, has a provocative significance because Poland has disappeared as a state in 1795, being divided between Prussia, Russia and the Austrian Empire. Four countries situated in Europe have chemical elements named after their lands i.e. Fr, Ga, Ge, Po and Ru. So, France has not only two elements but its capital Paris (Lutetia) also give the name of element with number 71 in the Periodic Table. Another two elements (Ho and Hf) were named after European capitals of Sweden and Denmark respectively.

The three recognized laboratories (the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in California, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia and Gesellschaft für Schwerionen Forschung in Darmstadt, Germany (Institute for Heavy Ion Research, IHIR)) have signifi cant and indisputable contributions in synthesizing several transfermium elements and have the benefit to named chemical elements in its honor (Bk, Db and Ds), Table 6.

Table 6. Elements named after a place or geographical region

Sym-bolYear ofdiscoveryScientistOrigin of the nameFr1939M. PereyFranceMg1755J. Blacka district inThessaly called Magnesia, GreeceSr1787Cruickshanka village in Scotland StrontianGa1875Boisbaudranfrom Latin Galia a meaning Gaul, FranceGe1886WinklerWinkler named the element after his country, Germany.Po1898M. and P. Curienamed after Marie Curie‘s native land of Poland (Latin:Polonia)Sc1879NilsonIt was discovered by spectral analysis of the mineralseuxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia.Y1794Gadolinarmy lieutenant and part-time chemistArrehenius founda heavy black rock near the Swedish village ofYtterby(now part of the Stockholm).Hf1922Coster/HevesyHafnia, the Latin name for Copenhagen, where it wasdiscovered.Db1968JINRthe town of Dubna in Russia, where it was first produced
Re1922BergIt was named after the river Rhine in Europe.Ru1844ClausRuthenia, a historical area: western Russia, Ukraine,BelarusHs1984IHIRderived from the Latin name (Hassia) for the Germanstate of Hesse where the institute is locatedDs1994IHIRIt was named after the city of Darmstadt, where it wasdiscovered.Cu9000BCIn the Roman era, copper was principally mined onCyprus, сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened toсuprum.Eu1896DemarŒayIt is named after the continent Europe.Ho1878DelafontaineThe element was named after the city of Stockholm.Tb1842Mosandernamed after the villageYtterby in SwedenCf1950Berkeley LabThe element was named after California and theUniversity of California.Er1842MosanderHe named the new element after the village ofYtterbywhere large concentrations of yttria and erbium arelocated.Yb1878MarignacExamining samples of gadolinite, Marignac founda new component: erbia, and named it ytterbia, forYtterby, the Swedish village where he found the newcomponent of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was acompound of a new element that he called „ytterbium“.Tm1879CleveCleve named the oxide thulia and its element thuliumafter Thule, Scandinavia.Lu1907Urbain, Wels-bach/JamesLutetium, derived from the Latin Lutetia (Paris)Am1944Berkeley LabThis transuranic element is located in the periodic tablebelow europium, and thus by analogy was named afteranother continent,America.Bk1949Berkeley LabIt is named after the city of Berkeley, the location of theUniversity of California Radiation Laboratory where itwas discovered.Lv2000Flerov/Law-renceLivermore LabLawrence Livermore National Lab, itself named partlyafter the city of Livermore, California, USA. The cityin turn is named after theAmerican rancher RobertLivermore, a naturalized Mexican citizen of Englishbirth.

The first two elements in Table 7, Sm and Gd were named for minerals, which had been named for Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin (yttria ore was renamed gadolinite in his honor) and the chief of staff of the Russian Corps of Mining Engineers, Vasilii von Samarski. The editor of Science stated that when Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac chose the name gadolinium for the newly discovered element in 1886, he did not give any reason for the selection. The next element to be named after a human being directly or more correctly to say persons was curium, Cm. It was fi rst produced and identifi ed by the group of Seaborg at the University of California, Berkeley: 239 94Pu + 42He→24296Cm + 01n. Thereafter (1944), naming an element after a famous scientist became an accepted and common option. Although, the fi rst great debate without favourable decision was on the naming of the future element 43 at this time (after Henry Mosely): Ms, moseleyum.

Table 7. Elements named after a scientist

SymbolYear ofdiscoveryScientistOrigin of the nameGd18801886MarignacBoisbaudrangadolinite, one of the minerals in which it wasfound, named for Johan Gadolin, who firstanalysized the mineralSm1879Boisbaudranmineral samarskite from which it was isolated; Themineral was earlier named after a Russian mineofficial, Colonel Samarsky, who became the firstperson to have a chemical element named afterhim, albeit indirectly.Cm1944Seaborg, James,Ghiorsonamed after Marie and Pierre Curie – both wereknown for their research on radioactivityEs1952Ghiorsonamed afterAlbert EinsteinFm1952Ghiorso andco-workersnamed after Enrico Fermi, one of the pioneers ofnuclear physicsMd1955Berkeley Labnamed after Dmitri Ivanovich MendeleevNo1966Flerov Laborato-ry of Nuclear Re-actions in Dubna,Soviet UnionIn 1994, and subsequently in 1997, the IUPACratified the name nobelium (No) for the elementon the basis that it had become entrenched in theliterature over the course of 30 years and thatAlfred Nobel should be commemorated in thisfashion.
Lr1961GhiorsoThe team suggested the name lawrencium afterErnest Lawrence.Rf1969labs in the SovietUnion / Berkeleynamed in honor of physicist Ernest RutherfordSg1974Lawrence Berke-ley National Lab-oratoryin the honor of the chemist Glenn Seaborgcredited as a member of the group in recognitionof his participation in the discovery of otheractinidesBh1981IHIR, Darmstadtnamed in honor of Danish physicist Niels BohrMt1982German re-search team inDarmstadtAustrian physicist Lise Meitner, a co-discovererof protactinium (with Otto Hahn) and one of thediscoverers of nuclear fission.Cn1996German re-search team inDarmstadtafter Nicolaus Copernicus to honor an outstandingscientist, who changed our view of the worldRg1994IHIR, Darmstadtthe German physicist Whilhelm Röntgen, thediscoverer of X-raysFl1999Flerov /Berkeley Labsafter Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactionsin Dubna, Soviet Union; to honor the Russianphysicist Georgy Flyorov

Röntgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in physics in 1901. He discovered almost all the properties of X-rays within the fi rst few weeks of his investigation, and the temporary name he used for the sake of brevity remains still today.

Ernest Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1908. In 1911, he concluded that the atom contains a very small “nucleus” where almost all its mass is concentrated; the nucleous should carry the positive charges, whereas it is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Rutherford’s comment on the gold foil experiment: “It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.” F. Soddy and E. Rutherford proposed a theory of radioactivity in 1902 and used the term transmutation to describe the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements into new elements at a rate characteristic for each element. The word “radioactivity” was first coined by Marie Curie. In 1913 Soddy proposed that an element emitting an alpha particle is transmuted into the element two spaces to left on the periodic table, whereas an element emitting a beta particle is transmuted into the element immediately to the right, as consequence this led to Soddy’s proposal of isotopes. For his contributions for understanding radioactive decay and proposing isotopes he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for chemistry.

Niels Bohr also received the Nobel Prize in 1922 in physics for his contributions to atomic structure, nuclear theory and radiation. The discoverers of element 107 (Darmstadt Laboratory) had a wish to call it nielsbohrium (too long and includes the first and family name of the scientist) without precedent till then and the preposition of course was not accepted).

Earnest Lawrence and Stanly Livingston invented the cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley in 1931. Later the laboratory was named Lawrence Berkeley and many artificial elements were produced there. It is noteworthy that six of the people (Lawrence, Fermi, Bohr, Einstein, Meitner, Seaborg) connected with or working on the top secret Manhattan project for USA to produce “a powerful bomb” now have elements named in their honor. The Austrian, later Swedish physicist, Lise Meitner, born in a Jewish family, worked on radioactivity. Radioactivity is a sensitive quantity and is detectable from very small amounts of material. Element 109, meitnerium, Mt is named in her honor, and, and together with Marie Curie, became the second female scientist who was recognized in the Periodic Table. In 1917, she and Otto Hahn discovered the first long-lived isotope of the element protactinium. On 15 November 1945, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in chemistry “for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei”: the first bomb was dropped on 6 August 1945 (Hiroshima). McMillan and Seaborg shared the 1951 Nobel Chemistry Prize for discoveries in the chemistry of the transuranium elements. After World War II, under Seaborg’s direction, teams in California, Berkely obtained Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and Lr. In June 1974, a research team led by Ghiorso reported creating an isotope of element 106 with confi rmed synthesis in 1994 by the team of D. C. Hoffman. Although three years continues the debate of priority for discovery of several elements including whether it is appropriate to name a chemical element for a living chemist (Sg), contending that a living person’s accomplishments cannot be assessed from “the perspective of history”. Seaborg and his colleagues argued that the precedent had been set by Es and Fm, but the both eminent scientist deceased before the offi cial approving of the element names.

The Periodic Table now has 114 chemical elements (and the existence of 113 and 115 is already approved) and the search for new ones continues, certainly, in keeping with tradition, history and chemistry when choosing an appropriate name of the future new elements.

Figire 9. Glenn Seaborg shows seaborgium, Sg. He was the assistant of G. N. Lewis with whom he published a number of scientific papers. He was also an author of the actinide concept, analogous to the 4f-serie, and how this fit to the Periodic Table

Acknowledgements The author is grateful to FP7-PEOPLE-Marie Curie Actions-IEF for the financial support of the project INNOVILLN (622906) 2014-2016. The financial support by the EU Social Fund and Ministry of Education and Science, EU operational program “Development of human resources”, project BG051PO001-3.3.07-0002 Student Practices is gratefully acknowledged also. I also thank the three second-year undergraduate students (S. Angelova, A. Petrova, I. Nikolchina) from the University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy for assistance.

NOTES

1. Wikipedia

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